The computer that predicted the future

More than 20 years ago a generation of schoolchildren sat down to complete a questionnaire they were told would predict their future.

A print out of Jiig-Cal results from 1985 [Pic: Gareth Saunders] Enlarge Image

Their answers were fed into the Jiig-Cal computer, which filled an entire building at Edinburgh University and promised to reveal their ideal job.

The arrival of the Jiig-Cal results was met with hysterical excitement in classrooms across the country.

Many children had their dreams of Hollywood or football stardom shattered as the computer predicted they would become wig makers or lighthouse keepers.

But the questionnaire – and the often bizarre career suggestions it produced – remains one of the defining childhood memories for most of the estimated four million pupils across Scotland, England and Wales who completed it.

Now a BBC Radio Scotland documentary is to transport listeners back to the early 1980s, when today’s generation of tech-savvy 30-somethings were still in short trousers, and computers were something most had only seen in science fiction movies.

The Jiig-Cal system – an acronym of Job Ideas and Information Generator Computer Assisted Learning – was the brainchild of Jim Closs, an occupational psychologist teaching in the business studies department of Edinburgh University.

[The computer] had a whole building to itself and a team of specially trained computer operators to work it Jim Closs Jiig-Cal developer

Mr Closs, an enthusiastic pioneer of early computer technology, believed he could harness its fledgling power to improve the careers advice pupils were given at school.

In those days, the sum total of pupil’s career guidance was a 30-minute chat with a careers officer shortly before they left school, much of which was spent by the officer gently attempting to persuade the youngster that their dreams of becoming an astronaut or model were perhaps a little fanciful.

Mr Closs recalled: “This of course was a big disappointment to the pupil and it didn’t leave much time for the careers officers to get down to what would really suit the student.

“What needed to be done was for the schools to do some work on helping the kids to begin thinking on what was going to happen after they left school, so when the careers advisor came in there was a basis there already.”

Mr Closs spent several years in the mid-1970s perfecting his system before unleashing it on the nation’s youth, who were immediately awe struck at the thought of a supercomputer that could predict their futures.

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The first pupils to undergo the test found themselves confronted by a pencil and an A4 sheet of multiple choice questions, which asked them about their aptitudes, interests, likes and dislikes.

They were quizzed on how much they enjoyed working outdoors, if they minded being very hot or very cold, and whether they liked children, animals and getting dirty.

Their response sheets were carefully sealed and delivered by van to the university, where they were fed into the computer through an optical reader which could determine where they had placed their pencil marks.

The computer would then churn away and do all the matching operations between the pupil’s answers and its database of potential jobs before producing its results on green and white lined dot-matrix computer paper.

The early 1980s was a pioneering time for the computer industry

“The computer was very large, a huge great beast in fact – this was the days of mainframe technology, not the kind of desktop microcomputer that everybody is familiar with now,” Mr Closs said.

“It had a whole building to itself which was air-conditioned and it had a team of specially trained computer operators to work it.”

The results were not returned to the school for several weeks, leading to teachers the length and breadth of the country being pestered by pupils anxious to learn what awaited them in their adult lives.

But while many ripped open the sealed envelope to discover they were to become doctors, lawyers or scientists, others were not quite so lucky.

For those unfortunate children, the mythical computer foretold a future of pig farming, funeral directing or wig making – jobs which no self-respecting 13-year-old would ever consider.

Mr Closs admitted: “Sometimes pupils would react quite negatively to jobs of that kind being suggested to them, but one of the principles of careers guidance is to broaden the pupil’s horizons by putting before them ideas that they would never otherwise have considered.

“I am sure we had some pupils who were offended when they got funeral director on their printouts, but are now actually practising funeral directors.”

He revealed that his own daughter went on to become a teacher, which was one of the options Jiig-Cal had presented to her, while a study later found 70% of pupils went into jobs suggested for them by the computer.

The Computer That Predicted the Future will be broadcast on Radio Scotland at 1130 BST on Friday.

UK ‘hacker’ to fight US extradition

Two of the alleged hacks were at the Pentagon

A British man wanted in the US for allegedly hacking into nearly 100 computer networks operated by the US military and Nasa has said he will fight any attempt to extradite him.

We can only presume that the motivation is political and that it is proposed to make an example of Mr McKinnon

Mr McKinnon’s lawyer Karen Todner

Gary McKinnon, the 36-year-old an unemployed computer programmer from Hornsey in north London, is accused of what is described in the US as the biggest military computer hack of all time, and could face a lengthy sentence in US custody if convicted.

His lawyer, Karen Todner, said that Mr McKinnon could have been charged by British authorities but instead they had decided to permit US authorities to begin extradition proceedings.

“We can only presume that the motivation is political and that it is proposed to make an example of Mr McKinnon,” she said.

“We shall oppose any extradition application in connection with our client.”

Severe disruption

Mr McKinnon has been indicted in the US states of Virginia and New Jersey on eight counts of computer-related crimes in 14 different states.

This is an incredibly sophisticated cyber criminal…he was a very busy guy

Newark US Attorney Christopher Christie

Over one year he allegedly stole passwords, deleted files, monitored traffic and shut down computer networks on military bases from Pearl Harbour to Connecticut, causing what the US military said were severe disruptions.

It is estimated he caused damage of up to $1m.

Two of the alleged computer break-ins were at the Pentagon, and he also allegedly crashed a system of 300 computers at a New Jersey navy facility, Earle Naval Weapons Station in Colts Neck, shortly after the 11 September attacks.

So concerned were naval staff that the network was in effect shut down for a week.

Mr McKinnon, known by the internet nickname of “SOLO”, is also alleged to have hacked into space agency Nasa.

He was arrested in Britain in March by elite crime squad officers after Nasa suspected him of breaking into their systems, released in August and then questioned again before being set free.

His current whereabouts are unknown.

‘Sensitive’ information

The authorities said no classified information had been accessed, although they admitted that “sensitive” information may had been read.

“This is an incredibly sophisticated cyber criminal,” said Newark US Attorney Christopher Christie. “He was a very busy guy.”

They do not believe the hacking was terrorist-related and he is thought to have acted alone.

US Attorney Paul McNulty alleged that Mr McKinnon searched for computers that were “open for attack” – possibly through publicly accessible websites.

It is alleged he would then install hacker tools, including a remote administrator programme that could not be detected and which gave him control of the computer.

With these, he allegedly accessed other computers from which he copied files and deleted critical systems files, Mr McNulty said.

He added that, if convicted, Mr McKinnon faces up to10 years in prison and fines of $250,000 on each of the eight counts against him.

Apple’s colourful comeback

Apple trades on its success by launching five new colours of its iMac

The computer manufacturer, Apple, has unveiled a new line of coloured iMacs in an attempt to continue the recent upturn in its fortunes.

Last year industry analysts were ready to write off the company as more and more people moved over to Microsoft’s Windows as the preferred operating platform.

But Apple Computers has sold 800,000 iMac computers since they were introduced last August.

Instant hit

Designed to be affordable and easy for new computer users get onto the Internet, the iMac instantly became a hit not only with loyal Apple lovers but also many first-time buyers.

The original iMac

The striking turquoise blue colour of the translucent plastic casing and its clam shell-shape contrasted sharply with the drab cream or grey of most standard PCs.

Now, the company has introduced five new colours in line with Apples strategy to revolutionise the look of computers, saying what’s on the outside is just as important as what’s inside when it comes to selling computers.

The new iMacs come in yellow, green, red and purple in addition to the existing blue.

Colour conscious

One Apple Computer senior executive said many customers considering buying an iMac were totally indifferent to the type of processor or hard-drive inside but asked instead whether they were available in different colours.

iMacs have helped Apple to turn things round and have put it back into profit.

But analysts say that if the company, which is known for its graphics applications, is to woo more people back, it also has to deliver more state-of-art software to complement the speed and ease of its operating system.

Apple announced earnings of $106m for the quarter ending in September, compared with a loss of $161m for the same period in 1997.

Fresh warning over cyber attack

The attack targeted Microsoft database software

Experts are warning that a malicious computer code which disrupted the internet may resume its attacks on Monday. In South Korea, which was badly affected by the attack, systems engineers are racing to repair internet networks amid fears Monday would bring new outbreaks as businesses switch on their computers for the new working week.

The problem is not completely resolved and we will have to have more of a sense of the importance of security Lee Sang-Chul S Korea’s Information Minister

The South Korean Information Minister, Lee Sang-Chul, said he believed the problem was hiding, rather than fully resolved.

Computer experts said the code, known as a worm, had affected nearly a quarter of a million computers worldwide on Saturday.

The attack, which targets internet servers and does not infect home computers, slowed systems for several hours, affecting web browsing and e-mail delivery.

The attack was detected by the FBI shortly after it was launched on Saturday, limiting the damage.

Asian slowdown

Computer experts said the effect was similar to that of the “Code Red” virus, which brought internet traffic to a halt in the summer of 2001.

Companies need to take applying patches against new security threats seriously Graham Cluley Expert at anti-virus company Sophos

At least five of the internet’s 13 major hubs were targeted in Saturday’s attack.

Internet surfing in Asia was particularly slow.

In South Korea, the world’s most wired country where almost three-quarters of the population have internet access, services shut down nationwide for hours on Saturday.

Users and news media also reported outages or slowdowns in Thailand, Japan, Malaysia, the Philippines and India.

In the US, Bank of America customers were unable to withdraw money from the company’s 13,000 ATM machines, while the attack also disabled some trans-Atlantic internet and phone service.

Not a virus

The worm known as SQL (“sequel”) Slammer targeted a known weakness in Microsoft’s software to shut down powerful server computers around the world and can knock websites off-line.

Unlike viruses, the worm exists only in memory, so it cannot be detected by traditional anti-virus scanners.

The Microsoft website has a fix for the vulnerability, which companies can download.

“Companies need to take applying patches against new security threats seriously,” said Graham Cluley, senior technology consultant at the anti-virus company Sophos.

“If you don’t, then stopping new worms and viruses is as easy as catching smoke in a butterfly net.”

Computers get new life abroad

Only 20% of the UK’s unwanted computers are recycled

Most computers in the UK last just four or five years before they are thrown out, but one north London based company is giving them a new lease of life. Computer Aid is one of a number of companies which take in and refurbish machines that are no longer needed.

The computers are then sent out to schools and community organisations in the developing world.

Charity

Computer Aid is non-profit making. Most of its staff are volunteers and it relies on financial support from charities and development organisations.

Many of the staff at Computer Aid are unpaid

The majority of the machines come from businesses and organisations who need to replace them.

Upgrades and new models can make computers redundant within just a couple of years.

Landfill

Traditionally, redundant computers, although often still useable, have been dumped in landfill sites.

This is bad for the environment – each computer monitor can contain up to eight pounds of lead.

Strict new European laws due in 2005 could make such scrapping methods illegal.

Sensitive

Each machine Computer Aid receives is taken apart and rebuilt.

Computer Aid hopes to recycle 50,000 machines this year

Many are donated by banks or hospitals and contain sensitive information.

All programmes have to be removed and the data on the hard drive is wiped in accordance with strict security guidelines.

Demand

Last year in the UK 1.5m computers were taken out of use but only 20% of these were recycled.

There is a massive need for this technology in the developing world, where 99% of children leave school without even touching a computer.

Future

Since it was established in 1998, Computer Aid has sent more than 10,000 machines to 60 countries.

It hopes to step up its operation – aiming to recycle 50,000 computers a year.

Ultimately however, companies like Computer Aid know there needs be a change in attitude by consumers.

Only by persuading us to donate rather than dump our old machines can a computer mountain be avoided.

Helping hand for computer novices

The course assumes no prior knowledge of computers

A new IT skills programme specially designed for those in Northern Ireland intimidated by technology has been unveiled.

Equalskills was launched on Friday by Momentum, the Northern Ireland ICT federation.

The course will begin with the basics, from learning how to switch on a computer and using a mouse to surfing the internet and sending email.

According to the British Computer Society (BCS), almost a third of people in the province are afraid to use a computer.

BCS spokesman Wilf Voss said: “There is a common misconception that most people are at least familiar with the rudiments of computing and are familiar with terms such as email and the web.”

Mr Voss said the programme would “enable computer novices, regardless of status, education, age or ability, to develop a basic understanding in IT communication”.

Own pace

People will progress at their own pace, and organisers say those who successfully complete the course will be equipped for progressing on to the European Computer Driving Licence (ECDL) qualification.

ECDL Northern Ireland manager Roberta Cantillon welcomed this fresh initiative.

“There are still many people for whom even switching on a computer is a major hurdle,” she said.

“This short, straightforward training programme is already helping a group of young people in Northern Ireland address their fears.”

It follows a successful pilot programme in County Londonderry, funded by the Western Education and Library Board.

Equalskills training will be available from adult education and training centres across Northern Ireland later this year.

Computer breakdown disrupts flights

Britain’s airports have spent the day catching up after the collapse of the air traffic control service early on Wednesday morning.

For the second time in a fortnight a computer handling flight data failed, temporarily grounding planes and leaving controllers keeping track of aircraft with paper and pen.

National Air Traffic Services (Nats) says there was no safety risk, but an inquiry has begun

The problem has exposed the government to fresh accusations about the part-privatisation of the service, a month after Stephen Byers confirmed a loan of £30m was being made to cash-strapped Nats.

The air traffic computer system “can be creaky”

Delays

The problem happened at 0605 BST on Wednesday at West Drayton near London’s Heathrow Airport, causing knock-on difficulties for the new £623m showpiece centre in Swanwick, Hampshire.

It is a very creaky system that has been patched together over a number of years

Iain Findlay, Prospect union

The computerised system was fully operational again by around 35 minutes later, but air traffic control was forced to run at 70% of its usual capacity until about 1000 BST.

After initial delays of up to two hours, most UK airports were able to operate a normal service by mid-morning.

But some flights were still landing up to an hour late in the afternoon.

Software problems

Air traffic control

Swanwick controls most of the 200,000sq miles of airspace across England and Wales West Drayton has control over the area below 24,000ft around London and the South East A small control centre in Manchester covers the area below 21,000ft surrounding the city Scottish air traffic is controlled by two centres at Prestwick in Ayrshire

The system first broke down in the run-up to the busy Easter bank holiday, and left thousands of travellers stranded in airports around the world.

Richard Everitt, chief executive of National Air Traffic Services (Nats) told the BBC that particular incident had not been caused by a computer glitch.

It had been caused by the incorrect inputting of data, he said.

Neither problem was connected with computers at the new Swanwick centre, which was dogged by software problems before it opened six years late in January.

‘Patched together’

Iain Findlay, a spokesman for the air traffic controllers’ union, Prospect, described the computer system at West Drayton as “creaky” and said an investigation must establish why it had broken down again.

Safety “was not compromised”

He told BBC Radio 4′s Today programme: “It is a very creaky system that has been patched together over a number of years. It does seem to be susceptible to crashing.”

He stressed the breakdown did not compromise safety.

“Planes are still seen on the radar, they know where every plane is and they are being kept a safe distance apart.”

These incidents are a further setback for the newly-privatised Nats, which has had to receive the £30m bail-out from the government after running into financial difficulties following the events of 11 September.

‘Repeated breakdowns’

A group of seven airlines, including British Airways and Virgin Atlantic, has taken a 46% stake in Nats.

On Tuesday, one of these partner airlines – low-cost carrier easyJet, said it was considering writing off its investment.

Shadow transport secretary, Theresa May, said the incident showed the new organisation’s ‘flawed structure’.

She is calling on the Transport Secretary Stephen Byers to reassure passengers that “the repeated breakdowns are not a fundamental deterioration in the service provided under the new Nats”.

Tips for Buying a Computer

To the uninitiated, buying a computer can soon become a series of headaches – there is so much to consider besides the price. Before you even look at a model, you’ll have to think what you will use your machine for – is it for business, for pleasure, or for home organising? What software will you need? How much disk space will you require? And what about Internet connection and modem speed? The list is endless, which is why we turned to you for help, our computer-savvy Community. This is what you told us…

Operating Systems

So which to choose if you are buying a new computer, and are not already married to one OS? Ask yourself who you will turn to when the computer does not work right (out of friends and family, don’t count the guy who sold you the computer or the technical support number). Buy what that person uses. When it is 11pm and you are desperate to get the thing to work, you don’t want to call your friend and have him or her say ‘I don’t know how to fix Macs’ or ‘I told you not to buy Windows’.

The next consideration is the software that you need to run. Most productivity software has both Macintosh and Windows versions or there are equivalent competing products on the other OS. Many games do not have Macintosh versions, but the most popular ones generally do, and there are some games that do not have Windows versions. However, a few people will have a need to use a specific program that only runs on Mac or only runs on Windows, and you need to consider this if you have something like that.

You may also have industry considerations if you are using the computer for work. Many businesses standardise on Windows, and if you accidentally bring a Mac-formatted disk to work you will be stuck. On the other hand, companies that work in graphic design, advertising, publishing, printing, web design, and other arts are often standardised on the Macintosh.

Macs are not perfect, but they do crash less often, are still easier to use than Windows, and have not been targeted by as many computer viruses (a couple of dozen Mac viruses compared to tens of thousands of Windows viruses over the last 15 years).

Which OS to choose

Well, you basically have three or four different operating systems. Note that this is very important. First off, Macintosh X OS. Macs are quite nice, stable, but only have a small percentage of the software/hardware market and are generally incompatible with PCs.

Linux is an open-source OS (meaning you could download a free copy off the Internet) that is used a lot by programmers, Microsoft haters, and other anarchists. (It’s a joke, come on!) And there are several companies that distribute professional-quality Linux OS (RedHat being the first that comes to mind, and it is a very stable OS). It is worth noting that Linux has a very small share in the software market, though it can use the same hardware as a PC, if there are the correct drivers for it.

Finally, Windows 9x/ME, NT, 2000, and XP. The newest, XP, was just rolled out. It is basically a castrated version of 2000, with a very annoying product-activation scheme, in-your-face tactics to sign up for a Passport account, and a pretty GUI and software that’s not hard to find somewhere else, preferably free. Very stable (as it’s built on the NT kernel) and a memory hog. 2000 (otherwise known as NT 5) is just an upgraded version of NT. Very stable, though there are conflicts with some drivers and software programs. Not a bad choice as you get the same stability as XP.

Software

Any software needed to run your computer (device drivers, operating system, etc) should come with your computer. New computers usually come with some form of virus protection as well, although how long you will receive updates for will depend on the deal you strike.

New computers often come with a ‘bundle’ of software too – a couple of games, a word processing program and spreadsheet are fairly common. You may have to pay extra for this – but it should be cheaper than just buying the software. Look at what software you’ll be getting, and think about how much of it you will use. It’s pointless paying for four programs if you’re only going to use one or two – you may as well just buy those two separately.

‘Specialist’ software, such as music composing/typesetting programs may be harder to find. They probably won’t be cheap, either. Shop around, and don’t be afraid to ask the salespeople. If you go to a computer fair, you may also be able to get a discount.

For those who have the time and inclination, there’s a lot of free software available out there, either by downloading from the Internet or by buying ‘just the media’. Just a note to say be aware that if you pay for and download something off the Internet from, say America and you are in the UK, and they send you a back-up disc through the post, you will be charged duty by customs on it. As you have already paid for it, it is cheaper to make a back-up of your own if you have a CD re-writer – sometimes it will even fit on a floppy.

Be extremely wary of CDs on the cover of magazines offering ’1000 free hours at not a penny’s cost’ or some such – the packages make ‘adjustments’ to your operating system which make any other ISP’s connection run sluggishly or not at all. Either this is deliberate, in which case you shouldn’t deal with such people, or they’ve failed to fix this bug through at least six different revisions of the software, in which case you shouldn’t deal with these people.

A tip for newbies is to set up a webmail account with someone other than your ISP and make sure your friends know that address. There’s a good chance you’ll work your way through three or four ISPs in your first year or so, and if you don’t have a fixed email address you’ll have to irritate everyone you know by constantly sending ‘my address has changed’ messages…

Hardware

Don’t try and buy the ‘very best’ hardware out there. There are several reasons for this:

• The newest hardware is the stuff that can still have ‘problems’ (overheating, etc).
• The newest hardware also has new drivers, which won’t necessarily be tested well enough in combination with other hardware. Or even be available for all operating systems.
• It’s usually unproportionately more expensive than the previous version.

Even if you buy a complete PC which comes with everything installed, you could still have problems. Conversely, don’t get the oldest hardware or PC with the least features. When buying a complete PC, it’s cheaper to get it with a modem than add later.

What hardware you need depends on what you want your computer to be able to do. If you’re just getting something for word processing/accounts, you could easily get away with a very basic machine, such as an old 486 or Pentium model. You can often find these at computer fairs for around £50.

If at all possible, go to a showroom and try out a machine with the same/similar specifications as the one you’re thinking of buying. See exactly what it can and can’t do. Don’t be afraid to ask questions! And don’t be afraid to shop around for a better deal either.

Imagine if a computer comes ‘free’ with a printer worth, for argument’s sake, £200, a scanner worth £150, a video thingy, £50 and a digital camera worth £100 – that’s £500 worth of technology not in your main machine. Think like separates in Hi-Fi systems; one CD player could be as much as a similar model that incorporates CD and tapes or mini-disk or something. The components inside the single item will be just that little bit better. The value is singled on the main electronics not spread out over multifarious extras.

This isn’t a hard and fast rule but it’s worth bearing in mind when offers are giving away so much more than the main base model of the computer stereo or whatever – what are they trying to hide? That’s not to say that the computer makers are being dishonest at all but when your buying it may pay to look at the stand alone models and buy the extras you want separately – you get what you pay for more often than not.

Components

While the core specification of the unit (processor, disk space, etc) is important, don’t forget to look very carefully at peripherals. Here are the basics:

• Monitors – Usually a computer will be advertised with a ’17 in monitor (16 in viewable)’ or something. Avoid PCs where there is no brand and model given, or where the company’s own badged monitor is used. After all, the monitor is what you spend all day looking at, so it may as well be up to the job. Search online for reviews of the monitor in the specification. A Trinitron/Diamondtron monitor of at least 17in size will do most things. Sony’s range is pretty good, and the Mitsubishi Diamontrons are not bad value.

  The monitor is the thing you’ll be working with no matter what you’re doing at the computer. It’s the bit that loses its value very slowly. A good rule of thumb is to spend at least a third of the whole cost of the computer on the monitor.

• Keyboards and Mice – Make sure the keyboard is of a brand that you recognise. Intellimouse (with a scroll wheel) is really useful, but not essential. Optical mice are great, but expensive.
• Printers – Buy a printer separately – bundled printers are, almost without exception, basic and slow. Have a look around – read reviews, look at magazines. It’ll help a lot.

The following fun things, especially if you’re going to college, can make any computer a really multi-purpose machine:

• A TV Card
• A Video-capture card
• A CD burner
• All the RAM you can get

Bit for Bit or Shelf vs Assembled

What should you do: buy the computer from one of the large Music-Video-Household Appliances-Computer-Hi Fi Stores or go to a computer shop to have a system assembled for you?

The Hardware Store will offer something that costs x-amount, which features impressive amounts of impressive numbers. The price looks nice for what you get. The machine should work fine if you are looking for an non-specialised computer. Something to be used as a typewriter, some surfing and the occasional CD copy. It should also spare you any trouble by just working. The difficulties usually start when you try to add new hardware to the system. Why? Well, you have no idea what’s really inside the grey box. Yes, there’s a motherboard (the bit to which all the hardware is connected to). If you want to change the Central Processing Unit (CPU, the bit that says ‘Pentium’ or ‘Athlon’) you need to know which motherboard you are dealing with exactly. You want to add RAM to your 256 MB machine? Fine. Until you open it up to discover that all the RAM slots are taken already… Install a new driver for that Video Card? Sure. Oooops… a no-name XY-compatible card… sorry, no drivers.

That’s why the computers offered in the large chains are so cheap. The components are not necessarily the best quality or sensibly assembled. The RAM example above illustrates the point. There’s a decent amount of RAM but assembled in such a way that no further RAM can be added without having to remove some of the old. Also, RAM can differ. There are lots of different ‘flavours’ not all of which go well together with the motherboard. Mind you, they all work, but some types of RAM might slow the overall speed of the computer compared to some other type of RAM. And you have no idea what stuff will be in that machine. This practically applies to all the bits of hardware. Generally you will end up with a machine that works. Just don’t expect it to be easy to upgrade. The advantage is that you can walk into the store and buy one within 15 minutes without having to worry about much.

The small computer shop gives you the opportunity to select all the bits that go into the machine. That motherboard, so-and-so much RAM of this and that kind… This should keep you safe from any of the upgrading difficulties because you know what’s inside. Here it helps if you know what you’re buying. But even if you don’t you can explain what the machine will be used for and the guy from the shop will tailor a system to your needs. This adds flexibility and may save you some money. Go and ask more than one shop for a quote.

Do not be fooled by huge numbers in the advertisements. A Pentium IV with 1.7 GHz might be outrun by a well assembled ‘slower’ system. The following example illustrates this point:

I (still) own a Pentium I with 90 MHz (six years old), all the components selected by hand. Running a benchmark test to determine the system’s overall performance it came out better than a Pentium with 133 MHz bought straight from the shelf.

Some advice on the different kinds of components:

• CPU – Easily one of the most expensive parts of the system. Also the one that loses value rapidly. The way things are, a CPU bought at the beginning of the year is so out-dated by the beginning of the next that you will have difficulties to buy the same again. The only applications that really make use of the CPU are games. If you don’t intend to run the latest ones on the machine go for a CPU that is about three to six months old. They have enough power behind them to make any office package run smoothly. Also, don’t let anyone tell you that you need a Pentium IV (or similar) to surf the net. Just buy the cheapest one available if you want to use the machine just as a typewriter, for some surfing and the occasional CD copy.
• RAM – There is no such thing as too much RAM. Make sure that you have RAM modules as big as possible to have some open slots for later upgrading (eg, 256 MB in one module rather than 4×64 MB)
• Modem – That would depend on the telephone system you have. Consider something with a flat-rate and maybe DSL (about ten times faster than ISDN).

Often, the cheaper, ready-built systems are cheaper for one very good reason. The sound card, the graphics card, and in certain cases, even the modem, are built directly onto the motherboard. This is fine for a while, but the moment something goes wrong, or you want to upgrade the graphics card to play the latest game, you’re in big trouble. It involves digging around the insides of your computer trying to find a ‘jumper’ switch to disable the on-board graphics, which, if it exists at all, will probably be hidden under a mile of cabling and the hard drive, and will require you to completely disassemble your computer.

There’s a lot to be said for separate cards; if they break down or you just want something better, you open the top of you computer, pull the old one out, put the new one in, turn the computer back on and throw the CD that came with it into the drive. (OK, it can be a little more complicated than that, but it’s a heck of a lot easier than changing a motherboard.)

A Word about Macs and Other Things

Speed, as a general factor, takes on different forms, and is generally only helpful to those doing very intensive things on their computers: games (especially the high-end video experiences), multimedia, web editing, video capture, animation, etc. Word processing isn’t so dependent on it and Internet stuff – that is, web browsing – doesn’t require so much speed on the part of the computer itself, but more on the speed of the connection. And remember, if you are a speed junky, and you want the fastest, don’t just look at the ‘megaHertz’ speed. Set a Pentium III next to a G4 of the same clock speed (ie, 700 MHz), and the G4 will actually be quite a bit faster because of the way it’s put together. (Intel actually did the tests on this, and posted the results on their website.)

The primary use of the computer is also a consideration; if you’re doing stuff like spreadsheets and other business-y things, a PC is probably your better bet, as it has many components that are easy to swap out with newer ones if you know what you’re doing (which isn’t too difficult to learn and can, in some ways and in the long run, be cheaper). And as for OS (Operating System), if all you’re doing is business-y things, look into Linux as opposed to anything in the Microsoft family; Linux may be a bit more difficult to set up (though it isn’t too difficult to find someone who will do it for cheap or free in most places on the globe), but it is actually easier to maintain and is a more stable system. And it is open-source, which is wonderful for all that licensing stuff.

If you’re going to be doing graphics, sound, putting movies together, or any of that, a Mac or Apple of sorts really is your best option. The entire hardware set-up is made for it; you will find no other affordable desktop or laptop computer capable of the feats that a Macintosh can do with multimedia, and OS X (Apple’s newest operating system) is inspired by Unix, the uncrashable system. It can handle amazing amounts of things, and hey, if it gets confusing (not likely), there’s always still their old, familiar OS still embedded in the new one. The other advantage of a Macintosh is that it is possible to run any application on a Mac that can run in a Windows or Linux environment. There are programs available for that sort of thing, and more and more software companies are making Mac-compatible or even Mac-native versions of their programs. And a Mac will run Linux or Unix, as well.

If your only use is going to be word processing and email, you could ‘build your own’ computer. If you know what components are needed, and you know where they go and how to fit them together, going with a PC and making your own may be a very cost-effective option. Do some shopping online; look at what company makes the best of a type of hardware and how well it works with other things (other hardware, different OSes), and put it together yourself. It will also be cost-efficient down the line, when you want a better video card but don’t want to have to call a technician or replace/upgrade the whole computer. The second route is the iMac – its whole purpose is the simple stuff, like word processing and email; it’s also made to make web-connecting easy, and if you’re uneasy around computers they tend to be very friendly. They are easy, and simple, but if you learn the machine well, you can do more and more amazing things with it. You won’t be able to just swap things out as needed, but hopefully, you won’t need to for quite some time with an iMac.

As far as software is concerned, Macromedia products for web-stuff are fast becoming the standard. Adobe also has some good stuff, especially if you’re a Mac-user (or a control freak that likes to create worlds with absolute detail and efficiency); Star Office by Sun Microsystems is a good all-purpose word processor, spreadsheet, and database program (and also presentations and graphs); on a Mac, AppleWorks would be the equivalent for a good word processor/presentation/etc program.

The amount of memory you need depends both on what you’re doing and what computer you’ve got. For example, though Mac programs, including the OS, tend to run on leaner memory than PCs, multimedia and graphical work is very memory-intensive as well as processor-intensive, so if you’re doing multimedia you’ll want as much as you can squish into the machine. (Remember that different machines, even within the same type of computer, have different maximums that the machine can handle. Find out what the maximum memory is before adding memory.) Memory can also be a tricky thing because of how the OS and the hardware handle memory; some systems will handle memory very efficiently while other systems have memory management issues.

Hard drive space depends on what you’ll be doing. Again, multimedia things require a lot of space, especially if you want to keep it high-quality, whereas the normal run-of-the-mill such as email and word processing don’t take up very much space. Also, different OSes have different space needs. Again, Macs tend to be leaner with the amount of space needed by the programs, but if you’re doing multimedia, you’ll use up the space you save with the things you create.

Desktop Publishing

If you’re thinking of getting into the world of desktop publishing, Macintosh is the way to go.

Hardware

• Computer – The PowerMac (nothing older than a PowerMac 7300) will read PC or Mac disks, usually has a CD drive already installed, and is fast enough to deal with process colour. They’re pretty easy to find in the classifieds. Quite often they’ll have programs/applications on the hard drives that can come in handy and save you some bucks, too. Computer stores will make sure that it runs properly, they will also remove all the programs and most likely reformat the hard drive, so that all you’ll get is a Mac with the current system software. If you’re wanting something a little newer and more compatible with current systems, the iMacs are pretty nifty – the cheapest one runs on a 500 Mhz G3 processor with 64 MB of ram, and comes with a CD rom drive. If you get an iMac, get a USB hub to add more ports, especially if you want a scanner and a storage device.
• Storage Device – While being able to burn a CD to give to your customer looks pretty classy, it’s not very cost effective. Alternatives include zip drives or external hard drives to add more storage space. You won’t need it on an iMac, but the PowerMac has a small hard drive by today’s standards.
• Scanners – You have to ask yourself whether your work will require a scanner. If you have web access, logos and artwork can be downloaded from customer websites. If you need clip art, there are many stock photography websites available. But if you need a scanner, it’s possible to get a good one without spending a lot of money. If you have a pre-USB port computer, then you have a good chance of finding a used scanner. Check your classifieds and your local Mac store for leads.
• Graphics tablets, trackballs, and other gimmicks – While these might look interesting and fun to play with, a good mouse is the way to go. The new optical mice are extremely efficient, very precise, and can be used anywhere without needing a mouse pad. Most Macs are sold with a compact keyboard; and what is recommended is getting an extended keyboard with a number pad on the right as his keeps your hands from getting cramped.

Software

Publishing software for the Mac is pretty expensive, and most of it’s made by Adobe. Which is why if you can find a Mac in the classifieds with these programs on it, purchase it quickly! The advantage to purchasing the programs from the companies is that you can buy upgrades when they come out, for much less than the original – and if your hard drive goes down, you can reinstall with very little trouble. However, if you’re purchasing a PowerMac, the chances of your hard drive crashing before you decide to upgrade the computer are slim (not impossible – so always back up your system!)

Necessary software:

• Quark XPress – one of the best publishing program around
• Adobe Illustrator – a vector-based illustration program
• Adobe Photoshop – raster image/photo manipulation program
• Adobe Publishing Collection – This package includes Photoshop, Acrobat (for sending PDFs), Illustrator, and Pagemaker. Pagemaker is another publishing program that isn’t as versatile as Quark XPress, but is capable of getting things done. Quark used to offer a competitive upgrade from Pagemaker for around $200, and if they still do, this is ideal for the budding desktop publisher who wishes to save some money.
• Typestyler – Text shaper and effects creator
• Extensis Suitcase – Keeps your computer from slowing down when you want to have more than ten fonts in your system. It allows you to add fonts temporarily to your system and close it when they’re no longer needed. It also allows you to have several different font sets that can be opened on start-up, but aren’t in your system folder.
• A good virus program – Virex, Norton Utilities, and MacAfee all produce good virus detectors. Recent is better than used in this case. Macintosh has a much lower occurrence of viruses than the Microsoft platform computers. However, accidental viruses can develop, so make sure you have a good virus protection program installed.

If you are just starting out on web design, various magazines have been carrying full copies of Macromedia Dreamweaver v1.2 for both Mac and PC – it’s perfectly useable.

Finally, on the software front, a good trick for legally getting the latest software cheap is to search the ‘remaindered’ pile of your local computer store for a (sealed) copy of a much older version of the software you need, buy it for pennies and register it, then legitimately take up the manufacturer’s generous ‘upgrade pricing’…

Timeline: Bill Gates and Microsoft

The history of the personal computer is inextricably linked to the life story of Bill Gates – the boy from Seattle who had the audacious vision of “a computer on every desk and in every home”.

EARLY INTEREST IN COMPUTERS

Allen and Gates were fascinated by early computers

28 October 1955
Bill Gates is born to a wealthy Seattle family. He is the second child of William H Gates II, an attorney, and Mary Gates, a leading charity volunteer.

1968
Gates starts at Lakeside, an exclusive private school. He is two years junior to fellow student Paul Allen.

The Lakeside Mothers’ Club buys the school a Teletype machine – a special typewriter that can send electronic messages down a phone line to a primitive computer at the local university.

Gates and Allen develop a passion for the machine and frequently sneak into the school at night to write programmes on it.

1972
Gates uses the Teletype machine to devise the Lakeside School timetable. It is a complicated job but Gates ensures the girls he finds most attractive are scheduled to be in his classes.

Skills shortage hits games firms

The games industry says British universities are failing to equip graduates with the skills it needs.

The warning comes from the industry campaign group “Games Up?”, which says games developers in Britain are facing a serious skills shortage.

The lobby group says there are now 81 video games degree courses at British universities.

But only four are accredited by Skillset, the government body which monitors such courses.

Demanding course

David Braben, chairman of Frontier Developments and a spokesman for “Games Up?”, said: “95% of video gaming degrees are simply not fit for purpose. Without some sort of common standard, like Skillset accreditation, these degrees are a waste of time for all concerned.”

The warning came as executives from across Europe’s games industry gathered for the GameHorizon conference in Gateshead. The North East of England is one of the centres of a games industry whose activities are spread widely across the UK.

At Northumbria University, which offers a degree course in Computer Games Engineering, staff say that prospective students are often put off by the requirement for Maths A-Level. Dan Hodgson, who is the course leader, says the games industry is very demanding and the university makes that clear to aspiring students.

“We do have people who don’t have the right mindset. We consistently tell them that this is one of the hardest courses we offer at this university. It’s certainly not for the sort of people who want to laze around and play games for three years.”

Death of maths

Fewer people are taking maths degrees

The games developers say that they are struggling to find in the UK the kind of high-powered mathematicians and computer scientists that they need to build increasingly sophisticated products.

“We are facing a serious decline in the quality of graduates looking to enter the industry,” said David Braben.

“The dearth of maths, physics and computer science graduates is hitting us hard.”

Jamie Macdonald, of Sony Computer Entertainment Europe, said there was a need for Centres of Excellence which would prepare graduates to compete for jobs in the industry.

“We want to work with government to help equip our graduates with the skills they need to thrive in one of the most dynamic and profitable industries in the world.

Britain has been one of the leading nations for games development but slipped from third to fourth position behind Canada in 2006.

The games industry claims that Canadian government support has allowed it to flourish, and thousands of jobs are moving from Britain to Canada.

By Rory Cellan-Jones
Technology correspondent, BBC News